- What are the “legacies of colonialism”? How is this reflected in Maori literature?
New Zealand is classified as a ‘settler colony’, says Paola Della Valle (2010). He believes that settlers in New Zealand, Australia and Canada, ‘must be differently located within postcolonialism as these settled colonies appear under a condition of political colonialism in their own postcolonial country’.
Ralph Crane, English Professor, University of Tasmania, Australia, wrote in his essay on postcolonial literature, ‘in neither country has the colonising power left or in any real fashion relinquished the power acquired by invasion’.
Prior to the 1960’s, a time in Maori history in which culture, language and social standing had reached a critical stage of being lost or wiped out, saw the emergence of Maori writers. Of note were Hone Tuwhare and Patricia Grace.
They both experimented in their writing styles, in telling their cultural stories within an accepted English format. Liminality, a precolonial status in which these writers are yet to transition to the level of social literary acceptance which they have subsequently achieved, was hard fought. This was a time of huge urbanisation of the Maori who lacked contact and literary understanding by the Pakeha. Due to Maori culture being in the most part verbal, there was difficulty for them in mimicking traditional English writing styles. As a result, their initial writings centred on their indigenous resentments at being a marginalised minority in their own country. This resulted in Maori literature expressing a different point of view to the Pakeha’s which reflects Maori oral traditions using the pace and rhythm of their language. This did not, however, negate their early works containing threads of ‘pastoral, English tradition’. Beston.J.B. ( ).
- How can Maori be seen as living under “political colonialism”?
Paola Della Valle (2010) describes Maori writing as, ‘using English language, articulated through Western genres, yet grounded on the premises that do not belong to the scope and form of European canon’.
Maori literature up until the 1970’s depicted the spirit of Maoritanga, writing of their spiritual bond to their land and nature. Stories told of loss of land and tradition and the perils of urbanisation. It therefore follows that early Maori literature stumbled in its attempt to deliver the true Maori identity to the page. Writers had to express the colonial Maori in this new English language. Corballis R and Garrett S that this realist reading implies rejection of events that cannot be ascribed to a Western rational view, all of which underestimates Maori beliefs and supernatural flavours which are inherent throughout their mythology.
Parry, B and Hall believed that early Maori writers had to redefine their essential culture to fit into the postcolonial New Zealand. They supposed an ‘imaginary coherence’ in Maori writings and the Maori experience of Maori dispersal and fragmentation. Hall and Parry believed this imaginary cohesion enabled Maori to see their political stances as legitimate and their view of human experience as a viable alternative to the ruling view.
To summarise the question, I believe Maori initially struggled to write in a ‘new’ language but have proven the gainsayers wrong and are producing some wonderful culturally, colourful writings providing ongoing knowledge and growth of what was a threatened culture.
- How close do you think the bond between NZ and ‘Mother England” is today? Why do you think there might be a reluctance to loosen such a bond?
Colonisation in New Zealand followed the pattern of invasion previously used in other colonies such as Canada and Australia. Whilst there have been obvious differences in the application of Englishness (including language, architecture, education and domestic economies), New Zealand chose to keep close to the English format. It does appear historically, that New Zealand’s need to remain close has been a one-sided affair.
New Zealand was a colony up until 1907, subsequently becoming a Dominion of Great Britain. Most other Dominion ratified the Statute of Westminster by 1931 (giving full legal freedom except in those areas where New Zealand chose to remain subordinate to Britain), New Zealand however, did not sign until 1947. Historian, James Belich believes that, the New Zealand identity at the turn of the millennium was still an elusive concept’.
It was in the 1960’s Britain forced economic independence on New Zealand by joining the European Union in 1973. That political move drove New Zealand into a serious economic slump, coercing New Zealand to find new markets to replace previous British markets. This painful economic state coincided with the escalation of the Maori renaissance. These two events, one economic, the other cultural, caused New Zealand to redefine their economy and their attitude. New Zealand was no longer just an outpost of ‘Mother England’, it now had to enter what the first president of independent Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah stated as,
‘the essence of neo-colonialism is the state which is subjected to it is, in theory, independent and has all the outward trappings of international sovereignty. In reality its economic system and thus its political policy is directed from outside’.
At this stage of New Zealand’s postcolonial development, it was now the Pakeha and their continued use of English mores and economic trends who had their identities threatened with this cut to the economic privilege as an outpost of their ‘Motherland’.
In my view, the bonds between England and New Zealand are those of pure economic strength and any reluctance to remove ties within our political, educational and social development lie purely with the cost factor of recreating laws and rules of Governance. Existing, inherited (Statute of Westminster) laws and educational systems have provided New Zealand’s social development with a constant, safe mode of government up until now, but have failed to acknowledge or deal with the nativism inherent in New Zealand’s history, plus an increasing multicultural immigration policy. This is resulting in a situation which Hunter states as,
‘Has achieved a distinct and separate constitutional identity but not a ‘national’ one’.
- When was the beginning of the ‘Maori Renaissance’ and how can we define this.
The 1970’s period is the recognised start of the Maori renaissance as defined by the growing sense of self-determination causing a break in the concept of a monoculture and growing awareness on the part of Pakeha to realise their country was made up of two different cultures. This required a mental shift in recognising New Zealand was indeed a ‘South Pacific country, not a ‘watered down tasteless Britain of the South’.
- How is ‘postcolonality; reflected in Maori writing, generally?
Paola Della Valle writes of ‘modes’ of resistance to colonial power. Starting in the 1960’s, Maori writers began to be published, (J.M. Sturm and Hone Tuwhare). They began a critical awareness of Maoridom, telling stories which included transcriptions of tradition and culture in the English language. They used a new language to express their thoughts and aspirations to the settlers giving their perspective of colonisation. As Maori writer’s confidence grew, their writing gathered power and persuasion, telling their views and emotions of being bound, disinherited and overlooked in their ‘English’ developing country.
From the 1960’s up until today, Maori have used their literary skills to highlight an awareness of their political rights and their sovereignty. This awareness developed and in the 1970’s the Maori became openly vocal with public demonstrations and petitions to Parliament, forming the basis of the Maori Nationalist movement. This movement resulted in the establishment of the Waitangi Tribunal, set up to rule on the alleged breaches of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1875.
Powhiri Wharemarama Rika-Heke described the Maori writing in the1950’s and 60’s as,
The stories and poems as invocations of loss, filled with regret, nostalgia and resignation which did not threaten anyone.’
J.B. Beston ascribed early Maori writings to, ‘being part of the ‘pastoral tradition’ aimed at recovering Maori cultural identity, giving ‘an imaginary coherence on the experience of dispersal and fragmentation’.
- Who was the first published Maori writer in English, and what did they publish?
A woman called J.C.Sturm who published ‘The Old Coat’ and ‘For All The Saints’ in the periodicals Numbers 1 in 1954.
- What was the first book of poetry published by a Maori writer in English?
Hone Tuwhare published, in English a collection of his poetry in 1964, called No Ordinary Sun
- When was the first collection of Maori writing in English published?
The first collection of Maori writing was published in 1970 by Margaret Orbell. This collection included short stories and poems.
- Give some examples of Maori making their voiced heard in the 1970’s and 1980’s.>
Harry Dansey, playwright published Te Raukura: The Feathers of the Albatros. Barry Barclay and Merata Mita, both film-makers, Apirana Taylor, Witi Ihimaera and Patricia Grace.
- What was the first book of short stories published by Patricia Grace?
Patricia Grace first publication was ‘Wairiki and Other Stories’.
- What are some of the main issues and concerns in Patricia Grace’s writing?
Fergus Barrowman felt they, ‘opposed any monocentric view on reality’ and ‘showed the potential of alternative values. They rewrote history, challenging the dominant version and counter-colonised the genres of the Western canon and the English language’. Barrowman felt Grace’s writings forced Pakeha to accept the importance of her literature as an ideological discourse marking the Maori relationship to and with the Pakeha.
- What was the first collection of short stories by Witi Ihimaera called?
Witi Ihimaera published Pounamu, Pounamu in 1972.
- What are some of the issues and concerns in his writing?
Pearson felt that Witi Ihimaera’s ‘characters live in an amphibious state.’ I understand this as being Witi’s inability to find motivation with the learning programmes he was being taught, plus his lack of knowledge of his spiritual and cultural roots. He felt urbanised and through a checkered beginning strove to celebrate his heritage.
- How has Maori Literature ‘indigenised’ Western literary genres?
Maori writers have used their ‘second’ tongue to express Maori points of view. It could be said that Maori writing, containing sentimentality, lyrical nuance and cultural awareness has personified New Zealand in its own entirety, not needing, now to rely on ‘Mother England’.
References:
Belich J. Historian, (2013) The New Zealand Wars and the Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict. https://books.google.co.nz/books?isbn=1869404939
Beston.J.B. (2010). reporting J.B. Beston’s essay ‘Witi Ihimaera, Maori Novelist in a Changing Society’.
Crane R., English Language Professor, University of Tasmania, Australia
Corballis R and Garrett S New Zealand Book Council
| ISBN | 1776561996, 9781776561995 |
Fergus Barrowman (2017) Sport 45: New Zealand New Writing, Victoria University Press.
ISBN: 1776561996,978177656199
Paola Della Valle (2010) From Silence to Voice, The rise of Maori Literature (pgs. 88 – 106).